Organisation Of Polysemy And Differentiation
With Reference To Cooking, Dressing And Perception Verbs In Hindi
Introduction
There is nothing more basic than 'Categorization' to our thought, perception, action and speech. Every time we see something as a kind of thing, for example a tree, we are categorizing. Most categorization is automatic and unconscious. The idea that categories are defined common properties is not only our everyday folk theory of what a category is, it is also the principal technical theory – one that has been with us for more than two thousand years. And any time we either produce or understand any utterance of any reasonable length, we are employing dozens of if not hundreds of categories: categories of speech sounds, of words, of phrases and clauses, as well as conceptual categories. Categorization is not a matter to be taken lightly. Without the ability to categorize, we could not function at all, either in physical world or in our social and intellectual lives. An understanding of how we categorize is central to any understanding of how we think and how we function, and therefore central to an understanding of what makes us human. (George Lakoff in 'Women Fire, and Dangerous Things')
As the title suggests, the objective of this project work is to analyse the Categories of Cooking, Dressing and Perception Verbs in Hindi and account for their polysemous or differential patterns in the lexis of this language. Also, I have attempted to show, with examples, the lexicalization patterns of these verbs in Hindi. For the purpose I have made use of Beth Levin's book 'English Verb Classes and Alternation'.
Words are classified into 'Categories' or 'Semantic Fields' on the basis of their 'Protypical meaning'. The term 'Semantic Field' or 'Lexical Field' refers to the organisation of related words and expressions into a system which shows their relationship to one another. The absence of a word in such an organisation (or Category) is called 'Semantic/ Lexical gap'. Whereas, the term 'Prototype' refers to a particular example of something which is highly typical and which may be taken as representing that category. The prototype theory suggests that human categorization is essentially a matter of both human experience and imagination – of perception, motor activity, and culture on the one hand, and of metaphor, metonymy, and mental imagery on the other.
The organisation of lexicon can be approached within either a componential or a relational framework. From a componential point of view, the internal structure of a semantic field may be looked upon as the outcome of the interaction of a set of more or less field – specific components and a number of general field – independent components. For example, verbs of cooking in Hindi are usually distinguished on the basis of state change, acts of mixing, putting directly on fire/ inside utensil etc. Whereas, the dress verbs in Hindi are based on the proportion of coverage by the dress or manner etc. Accordingly, the perception verbs which include 'see verbs', 'sight verbs', 'peer verbs' and 'stimulus subject perception verbs' tied to a sense of modality.
Lexical relations such as hyponymy, meronymy, antonymy and synonymy of primary consideration in the relational approach. Due to their generality and subtle applicability they are very useful when it comes to account for the organisation for the lexicon.
The verbal semantic fields tend to be organised around one or at most a few nuclear verbs (Viberg 1993), which are dominant within their fields with respect to frequency of occurrence, the number of secondary senses and the range of constructions they can enter into. The nuclear verbs include the core component of the field but in addition contain some more specific components. They represent the most typical verbs within their fields rather than being the direct exponents of the general meaning shared by all members of the field.
Verbs of Perception
The verbs of perception take the perceiver as subject and what is perceived as direct object. They take a variety of sentential complements. They include:
l See verbs: Detect, Discern, Feel, Hear, Notice, See, Sense
2 Sight Verbs: Descry, Discover, Espy, Examine, Eye, Glimpse
3 Peer verbs: Check, Gape, Gawk, Leer, Listen, Peer, Peep
4 Stimulus Subject Perception Verbs: Feel, Look, Sound
While, see and sight verbs are used transitively the peer and stimulus subject perception verbs are used intransitively. Unlike the first two of the category these verbs also don’t take perceiver as their subject.
Lexicalization of Cooking, Dressing and Perception Verbs in Hindi
The *lexicalization patterns of common verbs such as verbs of 'Cooking' and 'Dressing' in human languages exhibit some striking similarities and differences. These commonness and even differences are motivated by certain features that tell us about the arrangement of the knowledge in the concerned language. For example, the Hindi speakers would make a distinction between eat 'khaa' and drink 'pii' by taking into consideration the state of the object being consumed. However, for smoking [things as solid as cigarette or liquid as Hukka] they would still use 'pii'. Whereas, a Bangla speaker would use 'khawa' referring to verbs of eating, drinking or smoking. They don't lexicalize any distinction based on the state of the object being consumed. Again, for the verbs like chew and swallow Hindi speakers use 'chabaa' and 'nigala' and Bangla speakers use 'khawa' and 'gela'. This shows a similarity in lexicalization patterns of Hindi and Bangla. This section is a part of the project work and it intends to describe the lexicalization pattern of the verbs of 'Cooking' and 'Dressing' in Hindi and Bangla.
The events of cooking are normally distinguished on the basis of state change, acts of mixing, putting directly on fire/ inside utensil etc. And the events of dressing are lexicalized according to proportion of coverage by the dress or manner etc.
Cooking Verbs in Hindi
pakaa naa cook
banaa naa prepare/ make
bhuja naa roast
seka naa bake
tala naa fry
chaana naa filter (deep fry)
sijha naa little heating
galaa naa soften
Hindi speakers employ these words in distinct contexts. When the food is cooked involving a change in its state of the ingredients (for example solid to liquid or semi-liquid) pakaanaa is used. pakaanaa will essentially involve fuel consumption [fire or electricity] except in cases it is ripening of the fruits.
Raaju A pakaa rahaa hE
Raju A cook ing be
Raju is cooking A
*Single word representation of meanings.
Hukka : Refers to a traditional form of smoking prevalent in Indian sub continent as well West Asia.
naa gives the continuant form.
When the food item is prepared by just mixing or grinding the individual ingredients, banaanaa is used.
Raaju B banaa rahaa hE
Raju B make ing be
Raju is making/ preparing B
The verb bhuja, like its English correspondence roast, is used when the food item or ingredient is put directly on fire.
Raaju C bhuj rahaa hE
Raju C roast ing be
Raju is roasting C
The verb seka, like its English correspondence bake, is used when the intended item is put on fire on/in a utensil that can be flat or rounded, but no cooking oil is used.
Raaju D seka rahaa hE
Raju D bake ing be
Raju is baking D
Hindi verb tala, is employed when some cooking oil is used as in the events of frying.
Raaju E tala rahaa hE
Raju E fry ing be
Raju is frying E
The speakers of Hindi also make a distinction between deep and surface frying. In cases where the frying is done like soaking in a concave utensil, different from flat ones, they would rather use the verb chaana.
Raaju F chaana rahaa hE
Raju F fry ing be
Raju is frying F
Hindi speaker use sijhaa when the event of cooking involves cooking / hardening at the surface of the intended item.
G thiika se sijhaa nahii hE
G properly adjmrk cook not be
G is not cooked properly.
However, when the event of cooking involves desired level of softening or dilution of the intended item the Hindi speakers employ galaa.
H galaa/ii nahii hE
H cook+agr not be
H is not cooked properly.
The Hindi speakers also use terms like lagaanaa specially for the events of making pickles and lapetnaa for the event of coating (with sugar, besan etc.). This event of coating is distinguished from application on surface. Some exclusive cases may be worth mentioning here.
1. In an exclusive case of draining (filtering of rice after its cooked), the verb pasaa is used.
2. In another exclusive case of litti (an indigenous preparation), where the traditional form of cooking involves setting of stuffed items in layers and then putting on fire. So, the event of setting on layers is termed chadhaanaa.
3. The Hindi speakers use bharanaa for making stuffed items like samosa.
However, the events of first baking/ roasting and then frying (as is the case with litti or stuffed puri or kachaori) is not lexicalized.
Besides, these distinctions in the terms for the verbs of cooking are are at times not maintained. The reasons can be the wide spread use of Hindi and its contact with other languages, stylistic uses literary versus colloquial uses ................
Dressing Verbs in Hindi
pahana naa wear
lagaa naa wear (put on)
lapeta naa put around
odhaa naa cover
dhaka naa cover (hide)
nikaala naa take out/ put off
utaar naa put off
hataa naa remove
The speakers of Hindi use pahana when the event of dressing involves full covering/ wrapping of the body or part of the body involved. The dressing may involve cloth items with button, zip, hooks while they cover around the body part they are meant for.
Sonu hameshaa M pahan.taa hE
Sonu always M wear cont be
Sonu always wears M
Correspondingly they use utaaranaa for taking out.
They use lagaa for the events involving fixing or tying, which may not involve full covering around the body part concerned.
Sonu hameshaa N lagaataa hE
Sonu always N wear cont. Be
Sonu always wears N
Again, correspondingly they use hataanaa for removing or putting off.
lapeta is used specially in cases where long garments are involved like muffler, belt, etc.
Sonia O lapetati hE
Sonia O put around
Sonia puts around O
In cases where the event involves full blanketing the speakers use odha.
Sonia O odhatii hE
Sonia O cover+ agr be
Sonia wears O
The verb nikaala is used in two contrasting cases.
1. In exclusive case where a bride is supposed to cover her head with extension of saarii hood (ghunghataa).
2. In cases where the particular cloth is being removed.
A = rice / pulse / vegetable
B = cofee/ tea/ chutnee/ salads/
C = bhujaa/ maize
D = roti
E = vegetables
F = puri/ jalebi
G = rice
H = pulse/ rice
M = kurtaa/ salwaar/ kameez
N = cap/ belt/ sun glass
O = duptta/ blanket
